Machiavelli

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Biographical Script of Niccolò Machiavelli The man known to history as Niccolò Machiavelli was born on the 3rd of May 1469 in Florence,

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in central Italy. Niccolò’s father was Bernardo Machiavelli, who had studied law and gained a reputation

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as one of the leading legal minds of the time, with a great interest in classical literature

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and philosophy. However, his family’s association with political opposition to the rule of the Medici family

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combined with him falling into tax arrears meant that Bernardo was unable to practise

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as a lawyer, and he struggled to make ends meet using the income from his farm in the

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country. Bernardo’s debt threatened to make life difficult for his young son Niccolò, since

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Florentine laws did not allow the sons of debtors to hold public office, and in 1476

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restrictions were placed on their ability to inherit, since they would have to assume responsibility for any unpaid taxes.

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Niccolò’s mother, Bartolomea Machiavelli, had grown up in a wealthy household in which

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she received an education that was usually forbidden to young girls of the time. She first married the apothecary Niccolò Benizi and had a daughter with him, but after

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the death of her husband in 1457 she married Bernardo, with whom she had four children.

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She appears to have carried out business on her own initiative even though there were limitations on the sorts of economic and commercial activities women could take part in, and she

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otherwise spent her free time playing music and reading and writing.

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The young Machiavelli was born in a large house near the south bank of the River Arno,

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sometimes called the Palazzo Machiavelli, which was divided between four branches of

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the family and housed some thirty people in total. In spite of these cramped conditions, the Machiavelli were an old and prestigious family

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in Florence who made and maintained their fortune as lawyers, bankers, and merchants.

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Although Niccolò would follow his family’s footsteps in joining the professional classes in Florence, he would leave behind a legacy in his writings that made him the most famous

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and notorious member of his clan. Despite his family’s status and intellectual credentials, Niccolò Machiavelli’s early

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prospects did not seem very bright, even though his native city of Florence was experiencing

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its Golden Age as a centre of artistic creation and intellectual thought.

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During the medieval period, Florence was one of many independent city-states in northern

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Italy, and by the 15th century it had become one of the wealthiest. Although it continued to follow some republican traditions, Florentine politics was dominated

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by the wealthy Medici family who made their fortune in banking. The Medici did not hold any formal political offices but used their money and influence

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to control the city’s political institutions, including the Signoria, the supreme executive

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body consisting of nine members and headed by the gonfaloniere di giustizia, or standard-bearer

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of justice. Under Medici influence, Florence became the centre of the Italian Renaissance, an artistic

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and cultural movement motivated by a desire to revive and build on classical antiquity.

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The architectural jewel of the Renaissance in Florence was the octagonal dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, designed by Filippo Brunelleschi and completed in 1436.

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In December 1469, the year of Machiavelli’s birth, the 20-year-old Lorenzo de’ Medici

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succeeded his father as the de facto ruler of the city, and under his leadership the

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city would rise to new glories, earning him the nickname Lorenzo the Magnificent.

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During the 15th century, knowledge of Latin and Greek became increasingly important for

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aspiring Florentine public officials. An admirer of classical antiquity himself, Bernardo Machiavelli intended for his son

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to have a classical education which would open up a career in the law, state administration,

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or the Church. After learning to read between the ages of four and six, Niccolò began studying Latin

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at the age of seven. Despite his father’s best efforts, Niccolò’s education was often disrupted.

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After a failed conspiracy against the Medici in 1478, war broke out between Florence and

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the Pope, who ruled over a large stretch of territory in central Italy. With his income reduced due to the impact of the war on his farms south of the city,

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Bernardo decided to cut costs and send Niccolò to study with Benedetto Riccardini, who was

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already teaching a distant cousin. In early 1479, the bubonic plague struck Florence and Bernardo decided to send Niccolò to live

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with relations in the countryside while remaining in the city himself. During the summer Bernardo fell seriously ill with the plague but survived the experience,

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enabling him to turn his attention to his son’s continued education, and in January 1480 Niccolò was sent to study arithmetic with Piero Maria Caladri, a distinguished

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teacher. After two years of arithmetic, in November 1481 Bernardo Machiavelli sent Niccolò and

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his younger brother Totto to study with Paolo Sassi, a priest and grammar teacher.

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Sassi taught Niccolò classical literature, including the works of such esteemed writers

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such as Cicero, Virgil and Livy. After learning how to read and understand the rhetorical and literary techniques they

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used, Niccolò was taught how to translate letters from Italian to Latin, imitating Cicero’s

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style. Since this instruction was intended to prepare students for a career in the law or government

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service, the letters Niccolò was asked to translate were designed to reflect real-life scenarios that he might face in his future career, while the classical texts he studied

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usually included discussions of morality and virtue which formed part of Florence’s civic

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culture. After studying with Sassi, Machiavelli enrolled in the university between the ages of sixteen

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and eighteen, where he attended lectures by the leading scholars of the day on the most

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influential classical texts. Machiavelli began to use the literary talents he developed during his studies to gain favour

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with the Medici. Lorenzo the Magnificent died in 1492, leaving three sons, Piero, Giovanni, and Giuliano,

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and Machiavelli wrote a number of verses in praise of Giuliano. However, Lorenzo’s eldest son and successor Piero de’ Medici proved to be a weak political

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leader, and when King Charles VIII of France marched into Italy in the summer of 1494 to

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assert his claim to the Kingdom of Naples in southern Italy, Piero was unable to resist

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and agreed to capitulate without consulting the Signoria. The furious Florentines overthrew Piero but struggled to form a new government, enabling

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the priest Girolamo Savonarola to take political charge with widespread popular support.

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Preaching from his pulpit in the cathedral, the moralistic Savonarola denounced the wealth of the Medici and claimed that the French invasion was divine punishment for the city’s

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sins, and under his influence luxurious items such as jewellery, paintings, books of poetry

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and musical instruments were burned in the ‘bonfires of the vanities.’

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Although the Machiavelli family had been among the opposition to the Medici, Niccolò’s

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efforts to seek favour with them threatened to backfire. Meanwhile, his mother Bartolomea had died in 1496, and his father Bernardo’s income

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remained low, leaving Niccolò and his brother Totto in extreme hardship.

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During this time Machiavelli worked on a translation of the Andria by the Roman satirist Terence

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into his native Tuscan dialect. Rather than a faithful translation of the Latin original, Machiavelli added his own

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vulgar jokes and inserted subtle references criticising Savonarola.

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At around this time, Machiavelli met Marcello Adriani, who had been appointed the professor

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of poetry and rhetoric at the university in 1494. Although Savonarola preached that it was sinful to study the classics of pagan Rome and Greece,

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Adriani promoted the wisdom of the ancients as a guide to contemporary society, and in

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particular encouraged his students to apply rhetoric in the cause of republican liberty.

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By 1497, Savonarola’s authority in Florence began to diminish, as Charles VIII signed

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a treaty with the League of Venice led by the pope and withdrew from Italian affairs.

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The Florentine priest had depended on the French alliance and was left exposed to attack

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by the papacy and its allies in the League. When Florence received reassurances that the city would be left alone if they stopped Savonarola

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from preaching, his political opponents moved against him. The Signoria struggled to deal with the political turmoil that followed, and the death of the

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long-serving chancellor Bartolomeo Scala further heightened tensions.

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The Florentines were determined to choose a compromise candidate who was not associated with either Savonarola or the Medici.

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Machiavelli’s lack of political connections was now an asset and in February 1498 he ran

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for the office of second chancellor, which dealt with the city’s relationship to subject towns and domestic matters.

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Although he was unsuccessful, his friend and mentor Marcello Adriani won election to the

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first chancellorship. Meanwhile, the political tensions in Florence showed no sign of abating, and the Signoria’s

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reluctance to silence Savonarola prompted Pope Alexander VI to place the city under

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a papal interdict. Eager to avoid the wrath of the Church falling on their city, the Florentines arrested Savonarola

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and hanged him and two of his associates on the 23rd of May and cracked down on his political

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supporters. With the incumbent second chancellor stripped of his offices, the Signoria looked for a

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replacement, and on the 19th of June 1498, the 29-year-old Niccolò Machiavelli became

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second chancellor. The fall of Savonarola transformed Machiavelli’s political fortunes overnight, making him one

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of the most important officials in the Florentine government. It was a difficult time for the city, which was not only facing a constitutional crisis

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but was also heavily indebted due to the ongoing war. Following the unexpected death of Charles VIII in April 1498, Florence mounted a campaign

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to reconquer the port city of Pisa, which had rebelled against Florentine rule during the French invasion four years earlier.

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Taking advantage of the situation, a Venetian army crossed into Florentine territory from the northeast, including a detachment led by Piero de’ Medici and his brothers.

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With the Venetians threatening the city of Arezzo, the Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli

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was ordered to withdraw from Pisa to confront the Venetian threat. In the meantime, the new French king Louis XII aimed to attack Milan and to repair relations

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with both the pope and Venice, threatening to leave Florence further isolated.

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The Florentine leaders were now faced with choosing to stick to France, or to switch sides and unite with its Italian neighbours against France.

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Although as second chancellor Machiavelli did not have any formal responsibility for diplomatic affairs, previous holders of the office routinely played a diplomatic role,

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sometimes even serving as ambassadors. In March 1499, Machiavelli was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to negotiate with

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a mercenary captain who refused to fight, carrying out his instructions effectively

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and signallinged that Florence was not going to back down. Meanwhile, a peace offer from Venice in April proved unacceptable to both Florence and Pisa,

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signalling that the Venetians wanted to withdraw from the war and were now focusing their efforts

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on potential hostilities against the Ottoman Empire to the east. This encouraged the Florentines to renew the campaign against Pisa, and Machiavelli compiled

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a report summarising the opinions of Florence’s generals, which concluded that Pisa could

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only be taken by a direct assault. However, he was less successful in July when he returned empty handed from negotiations

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with the formidable Caterina Sforza, the regent of Forli, an ally of both Florence and Milan

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who was being forced to choose between the two. When French troops crossed into Italy and attacked Milan in late July, the Florentines

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were obliged once again to side with France. The Florentine assault on Pisa in August was initially successful and the city walls were

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breached, but rather than exploit his advantage Vitelli hesitated and camped beneath the walls,

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while an outbreak of malaria weakened the Florentine army and gave the Pisans the chance to recover.

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The Signoria was outraged but sent Vitelli reinforcements to finish the job, but the

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commander raised the siege before he received them. When the Signoria received letters from Louis XII showing that Vitelli was in contact with

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Milan, he was arrested and brought back to Florence. Machiavelli was convinced of Vitelli’s guilt and approved his execution on the 1st of October.

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Meanwhile, the Florentine army continued to struggle in Pisa, prompting the Signoria to

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ask Louis for military assistance. When 5,000 Swiss mercenaries arrived in the spring of 1500, they were unwilling to fight.

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Machiavelli was given the task to persuade the Swiss to fight but was unable to prevent a mutiny in July, when a group of mercenaries took a Florentine commissioner prisoner and

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threatened to kill him if their demands for their pay were not met. When Florence refused to be intimidated and prepared to fight, the Swiss backed down and

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left, but with their departure the Florentine army was no longer in a position to continue

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the siege of Pisa. The failure of the siege led to a breakdown in relations between Florence and its French

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ally, with both sides blaming each other for the misfortune. Machiavelli was one of two envoys sent to France to make the Signoria’s case that

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the Swiss mercenaries had conspired with the Pisans and Florence would not make any further

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payments for the mutinous soldiers. The Florentine envoys struggled to make their case during a series of meetings in August

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and September with the king and his adviser Cardinal Georges d’Amboise.

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The French were insistent that the Signoria had to pay the 38,000 francs it still owed

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to the king, but as Machiavelli did not have the authority to agree to these demands, he

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could only write to the Signoria asking for further instructions and to send a permanent ambassador to France.

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Although the Signoria realised that there was no other choice but to pay Louis and maintain the French alliance, the city was already short on funds and unwilling to send an ambassador.

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However, Florence now needed help not only to retake Pisa but also to defend its own

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lands. Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, had conquered the cities of Forli and Imola

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in the Romagna region and threatened Florentine territory from the east. Louis was alarmed at these developments and promised Machiavelli he would provide military

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assistance if Borgia were to attack Florence or Bologna, while the Signoria was prepared

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to pay 10,000 ducats immediately. In December 1500, the new Florentine ambassador had arrived in France, allowing Machiavelli

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to return home. By May 1501, Florence had still not yet signed an agreement with Louis when Borgia crossed

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into Florentine territory. In an effort to secure French help as soon as possible, the Signoria sent the king 20,000

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florins. Although Borgia promised Florence he would not attack the city, he chose to blackmail

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the Florentines by demanding to be appointed captain-general on an annual salary of 36,000

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florins, while also demanding the restoration of the Medici. The Signoria was incensed but had little choice with the prospect of Borgia’s army of 10,000

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men on its doorstep and agreed to negotiate. While Borgia dropped his demands for a change in government, he was appointed captain-general

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even though the city had no means to pay him the sum he demanded. However, in May Machiavelli heard that Louis had written to Borgia to leave Florentine

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territory immediately, and on the 26th of May Florence received news that 30,000 French

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troops were on their way to Naples, passing through Tuscany on the way. In early June, the French army approached Florence, and Borgia was forced to withdraw

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without receiving a single penny from Florence. Machiavelli spent most of 1501 attempting to calm the factional conflict which had broken

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out in the nearby subject city of Pistoia. For most of the year, Machiavelli and the Florentine representatives were unable to

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achieve much, but by the end of August both sides were in the process of negotiating peace

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without Florence’s involvement. The Signoria was afraid that both factions would unite and turn against Florence, and

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in October Machiavelli was sent to the city to gather intelligence. Within days factional violence began to break out again, and on the 18th of October Machiavelli

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was appointed assistant commissioner general with instructions to maintain the peace agreement

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while also ensuring Pistoia’s subject status. Thanks to Machiavelli’s efforts, peace was restored on the 20th, and Florence’s political

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and military situation much improved significantly. Away from his political duties, in August 1501 the 32-year-old Machiavelli married the

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20-year old Marietta Corsini, who hailed from a far wealthier family than Machiavelli’s

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own. Although it was likely an arranged marriage, it proved to be a successful and loving partnership,

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and Marietta would often look after her husband’s properties when he was abroad on government

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business. Despite these successes, Florence was by no means out of danger.

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After helping King Louis capture Naples, Borgia turned his attention back north with an eye

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to expanding his new duchy of Romagna and demanding that Florence fulfil the agreement

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it signed in May. Rumours that Giuliano de’ Medici had offered 70,000 florins for French support in restoring

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the Medici to power in Florence alarmed the Signoria, and in April 1502 it agreed to pay

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Louis 150,000 ducats in exchange for a promise of French protection.

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Newly emboldened, the Florentines stepped up their efforts against Pisa, only to receive

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the news that the city of Arezzo had been captured by Vitellozzo Vitelli, brother of

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the mercenary captain executed by the Florentines a couple of years earlier. Later in June, Piero de’ Medici arrived in Arezzo to an enthusiastic welcome.

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Fearing the return of the Medici, the Signoria dispatched Machiavelli to assist Francesco

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Soderini in negotiations with Borgia himself. Beginning at the end of June, negotiations with Borgia in Urbino started poorly as the

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Duke of Romagna threatened to restore the Medici and reminded Florence of its political

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and military weakness. Although Borgia dismissed the notion that Louis would support Florence, in early July

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Louis was already leading an army into Italy to defend Florence the city against Borgia.

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Even though a desperate Borgia had moderated his terms, the Florentines were confident enough to break off negotiations.

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Although Florence managed to outmanoeuvre Borgia on this occasion with French support,

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Machiavelli warned the authorities not to underestimate the Duke of Romagna. The crisis in Arezzo prompted the Florentines to make constitutional changes seeking greater

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political continuity. The gonfaloniere di giustizia had been Florence’s most prominent political leader, but as with

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the rest of the members of the Signoria he served only a two-month term.

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At the end of August, the Great Council agreed to a gonfaloniere for life and appointed the

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experienced diplomat Piero Soderini to the office. As the brother of Francesco Soderini, whom Machiavelli had befriended on their mission

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to Borgia, the appointment was a positive sign. In the meantime, Borgia had been in Milan repairing his relations with King Louis, blaming

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Vitelli and his fellow mercenaries for the outrages against Florence, and by early 1502

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he regained the king’s favour and even had his blessing to attack Bologna. Infuriated by Borgia’s conduct in Milan, Vitelli and his fellow disgruntled mercenaries

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conspired to stir up rebellion in Romagna and offered an alliance with Florence.

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The Florentines saw this approach as an opportunity to make an alliance with Borgia from a position

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of strength, and in early October Machiavelli was dispatched to Imola to lead the mission.

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Machiavelli found Borgia eager to strike a deal and help Florence recover Pisa and Arezzo,

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but the Florentines could not make any agreement without first consulting Louis.

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As the negotiations dragged on, Borgia’s negotiating position strengthened as the rebellious

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mercenaries and their Bolognese allies proposed that he should abandon his efforts against

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Bologna and attack Florence instead. Machiavelli wrote back to Florence advising his political superiors to make a deal immediately,

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but by the time he was given the authority to do so at the end of October, Borgia was

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already in advanced negotiations with the mercenaries and Bologna. Although the agreement was not concluded until the beginning of December, Machiavelli saw

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that Florence lost its opportunity and requested to return home. The request was denied, and instead he was to follow Borgia on campaign as he left Imola

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on the 10th of December to meet with the mercenary captains he had re-employed.

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Although Machiavelli was relieved to learn that Borgia decided against attacking Florentine territory, he was afraid Borgia could turn his army on Florence at any time.

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After restoring his authority over the Romagna, at the end of December Borgia arrested the

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mercenary captains who rebelled against him and executed them over the following days.

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This show of strength finally convinced the Signoria to send a special ambassador to Romagna

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and allowed Machiavelli to return home in January 1503. Although the negotiations with Borgia had not been entirely successful, Machiavelli

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was by now an experienced diplomat and retained the support of the leading political figures

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in the city, enabling him to easily return to office as second chancellor.

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Upon his return, he was almost immediately asked by Soderini to draft a speech for him

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persuading the Florentine people to accept new taxes to finance an increase in military

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expenditure. Machiavelli eloquently argued that Florence had to build up its military capacity in order

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to more effectively negotiate with powerful men such as King Louis and Cesare Borgia,

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and past experience had shown that political tides could turn quickly and the city had

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to be prepared to confront all potential threats. When Soderini delivered the speech on the 28th of March, it was well received and Machiavelli

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became a trusted adviser to the gonfaloniere.

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In April 1503, relations between France and the Borgias had deteriorated to the point

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that conflict appeared inevitable. Pope Alexander set about forming an anti-French league and reached out to Florence, offering

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to recognise the border between Florence and the Duchy of Romagna, but Florence was not

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ready to abandon its French ally, especially as a French army would soon arrive in Tuscany.

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Having seen Borgia at close quarters, Machiavelli warned his superiors not to underestimate

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him, and in August he wrote a report describing how effectively Borgia had dealt with the

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rebellion of his mercenary captains and his cunning ploy to trap Vitelli and his associates.

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At around the same time, Machiavelli was working on a report advising how Florence should respond

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should Arezzo rise up again and join Borgia’s cause. Drawing on lessons from Roman history, he argued that rebellious cities should either

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be treated with kindness or punished severely, and that Florence’s policy of moderation

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had not been effective. Although Machiavelli proposed a pre-emptive strike against Arezzo, his superiors were

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afraid that any action would encourage its citizens to side with Borgia.

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The arrival of a French army heading south to Naples diverted Borgia’s attention, but

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the French were unable to spare any reinforcements for Florence.

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On the 18th of August, Pope Alexander VI died, possibly from poisoning while at dinner with

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one of his cardinals. Cesare had fallen ill at the same dinner and hurriedly made his way to Rome to influence

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the election of a new pope who would support his interests. He was initially confirmed in his offices by the newly elected Pius III, but upon arriving

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in Rome his opponents took to the streets and forced him to take refuge in the Castel

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Sant’Angelo. When the 64-year-old Pope Pius died on the 18th of October after less than a month in

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office, Borgia supported the candidacy of Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, who promised

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to confirm him as captain-general of the Church. Machiavelli was sent to Rome to observe the papal conclave on the 31st of October, when

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della Rovere was elected unanimously and took the name Julius II.

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Although Florence welcomed the election, Machiavelli was cautious, knowing that the new pope could

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not deliver on all the promises he had made. In November, when Venetian troops captured Imola and threatened to take the whole of

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the Romagna, Machiavelli received assurances of the pope’s support if the Venetians were

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to attack Florence. Meanwhile, Borgia was infuriated upon hearing his duchy was occupied by the Venetians and

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began to behave erratically, doubting the pope would fulfil his promises.

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In late November Julius arrested Borgia, and by early 1504 he was a prisoner in Spain.

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The fall of Borgia eliminated one of Florence’s most formidable enemies, but military developments

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in Naples caused further concerns. In May 1503, Naples had been captured by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, an officer in the

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service of the Spanish kingdom of Aragon. In late December, a French army sent to retake the city was defeated by Gonzalo, leaving

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France considerably weakened. Florence was now vulnerable to the Spanish in the south, the Venetians to the east, not

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to mention the possibility of an invasion by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, whose

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empire included much of Germany and had once incorporated northern Italy. Maximilian’s predecessors had been crowned emperor in Rome, often forcing a reluctant

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pope to do so by military invasion. In such an event, Florence could not rely on continued French military assistance, and

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in January Machiavelli was sent to France to confer with King Louis. Although the king promised that he would makde peace with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire

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and then support the Florentines against Venice, under the terms of the Franco-Spanish treaty,

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Venice was placed under Spanish protection. Machiavelli returned to Florence in early March frustrated with his fruitless mission,

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while the Florentines prepared for war with Aragon. In May, Gonzalo sent a detachment to Pisa and declared that the city was under the protection

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of King Ferdinand of Aragon, seeking to provoke a war with Florence.

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The city’s morale remained high, and when Michelangelo’s magnificent sculpture of David was completed and moved to the Piazza della Signoria on the 14th of May, the Florentines

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saw it as a symbol of defiance against a stronger foe. The Florentines decided that they had to capture Pisa before the Aragonese arrived in force,

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and devised a plan to build two canals to divert the flow of the River Arno in order

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to dry up Pisa’s port and prevent the city from being supplied by sea.

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Machiavelli was tasked with supervising the scheme, but soon began to have doubts about

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the original plans and suggested an alternative proposed by Leonardo da Vinci, but by the

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end of September the project was abandoned. Piero Soderini had been an enthusiastic supporter of the scheme, and its failure left the gonfaloniere

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politically weakened. Machiavelli spent early 1505 attempting to shore up Soderini’s authority, but the prospect

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of a Medici restoration was all too real, especially if Florence were to be defeated

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by the Aragonese army. On the 17th of August 1505, the Florentine army clashed with the Aragonese invasion force

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of 3,000 men under the command of Bartolomeo d’Alviano.

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Both sides were evenly matched in terms of numbers, after several hours of bitter fighting,

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the Florentines emerged triumphant. The success encouraged Soderini and the Florentine government to make another attempt at Pisa,

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and Machiavelli was closely involved in the preparations for the campaign. Although the campaign started well and the capture of Pisa seemed inevitable, disagreements

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among the Florentine commanders fatally undermined the assault, and by mid-September the Florentine

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army was forced to withdraw in the wake of additional Spanish reinforcements.

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Once again military failure called into question Soderini’s leadership, and the Great Council

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refused to approve more taxes for the effort. With Florence in desperate need tof more manpower, Soderini agreed to Machiavelli’s suggestion

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to revive a citizen militia, and the latter set about recruiting men from the Tuscan countryside.

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On the 15th of February 400 new recruits paraded through the city, and Machiavelli was widely

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praised for his efforts recruiting and training the men, even though the force had not yet

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received official recognition by the Great Council. In the summer of 1506, Pope Julius II planned to restore the papacy’s position in the

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Romagna and requested Florence’s assistance for the campaign. Although Machiavelli was sent to Rome to negotiate with the pope, Julius began his campaign without

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the Florentine troops he requested. Between September and late October, Machiavelli accompanied the pope in his march northwards,

33:02

and Julius successfully took Perugia and ousted its lord Giampaolo Baglioni, a mercenary captain

33:09

who had formerly been in the service of Florence but had changed sides. The papal army’s success in Perugia was welcomed by Florence, and the city eventually

33:20

sent Julius the contingent he requested for the invasion of Bologna, which was captured

33:25

on the 1st of November. Machiavelli returned home to Florence with an admiration for the pope’s boldness and

33:32

decisiveness in battle, qualities which earned Julius the nickname of ‘warrior pope.’

33:39

Machiavelli hoped to inspire Florence with the same boldness that the pope had shown and spent the rest of the year making the case for his militia, which had now grown

33:48

to five thousand men. On the 6th of December, the bill that Machiavelli drafted was passed by the Great Council, and

33:56

he was appointed to oversee the militia’s operations. Machiavelli spent the early months of 1507 working on the militia, where he proved a

34:07

successful organiser despite his lack of military experience, and within weeks small detachments

34:13

were already raiding the Pisan countryside. In the meantime, Florentine diplomatic initiatives to secure help from France or Aragon in its

34:22

war with Pisa proved unsuccessful. As Emperor Maximilian was rumoured to be preparing for another Italian campaign, Florence considered

34:32

reaching out to him. By December 1507, Machiavelli was sent to help the Florentine ambassador Francesco Vettori

34:40

negotiate with the emperor, but it was not until January that he caught up with the imperial

34:46

court at Bolzano in the Tyrol. Vettori’s inexperience and the difficulties in communicating with Florence caused the

34:54

negotiations to flounder. The emperor demanded a sum of money that Florence was unwilling to pay, while Florence demanded

35:02

military support against Pisa that the emperor was unwilling to provide. Meanwhile, the emperor surprised all observers by declaring war on the Venetians, and although

35:12

the campaign started well, the imperial armies were eventually defeated. In June 1508, Maximilian signed a truce with Venice and withdrew his forces from Italy,

35:24

no longer being in a position to help or harm Florence. Machiavelli returned home in June relieved that Florence had avoided a costly mistake.

35:35

In July, Machiavelli turned his attention back to the militia. When Soderini convinced the Florentine councils to besiege Pisa again, he mobilised the militia

35:45

and ordered it to raid the Pisan countryside and destroy the harvest.

35:50

Since the militia was without a commander for the time being, Machiavelli led this force to carry out the mission, and by November Pisa was running short of supplies.

36:01

In December, the anti-Venetian League of Cambrai had been formed by Maximilian, Louis XII,

36:08

Ferdinand of Aragon, and Pope Julius. Florence soon signed an agreement with France and Aragon, promising to pay them 50,000 florins

36:17

each for support against Pisa. Over the course of several weeks in early 1509, Machiavelli moved between the Florentine

36:25

army camps to ensure that the besieging army was well supplied, and on the 20th of May

36:32

the Pisans offered to surrender. On the 8th of June 1509, Machiavelli was marching at the head of the militia as the Florentine

36:40

authorities took control of Pisa after a fifteen-year war.

36:46

The victory in Pisa strengthened Soderini’s position in Florence, but the gonfaloniere’s

36:52

position was being slowly undermined by a campaign to return the Medici to power.

36:58

With the death of Piero in 1503, Cardinal Giovanni de’ Medici was now head of the

37:03

family. Meanwhile, the League of Cambrai had won several victories against Venice in the spring of

37:10

1509, but by the summer the Venetians were fighting back. While Louis and Maximilian were arguing about how to divide the spoils in northern Italy,

37:20

the pope considered withdrawing from the alliance. He had achieved his objectives in the Romagna and began to fear a strong French presence

37:29

in northern Italy as much as the Venetians. In February 1510, the pope signed a treaty with Venice, and the prospect of Julius leaving

37:38

the alliance would have dire consequences for Florence, especially as he had been won

37:43

over to the Medici cause. In June, Machiavelli was sent to France with instructions to persuade Louis to maintain

37:51

his alliance with Maximilian, and to avoid an open break with the pope.

37:56

Louis instead insisted that Florence provide military support against the pope, but Machiavelli

38:02

managed to convince him that it was in France’s interests for Florence to remain neutral to

38:08

avoid provoking the pope. Despite these reassurances, when Machiavelli returned to Florence in September he was given

38:16

the task of recruiting 500 cavalrymen for the militia should the city be dragged into

38:22

a war against the pope, but during the winter the war turned in France’s favour and allowed

38:28

Florence a moment of calm. However, in the summer of 1511 Louis announced his intention to hold a General Council of

38:37

the Church to depose the pope and sought to hold it in Pisa, and despite Machiavelli’s

38:43

efforts to dissuade Louis, the king was adamant that it would go ahead.

38:49

On the 5th of October, Julius joined Aragon and Venice in the Holy League directed at

38:56

France, placing Florence in grave danger. In November the General Council met for a few sessions in Pisa but left for Milan shortly

39:05

thereafter due to local discontent. Florence stuck by its French ally, which defeated a papal army at Ravenna on the 11th of April

39:15

1512, during which Giovanni de’ Medici, the papal legate to the army, had been captured

39:21

by the French army. The Florentines were delighted and it appeared that a Medici restoration was out of the question,

39:29

but over the next three months the armies of the Holy League launched attacks on several

39:34

fronts which the overstretched French armies could not resist. By July, the French forces were expelled from Italy, leaving Florence at the mercy of the

39:45

Holy League. Despite Soderini and Machiavelli’s efforts to mobilise the militia to defend the city,

39:52

the papal army’s devastating campaign prompted the gonfaloniere to resign at the end of August.

40:00

Although Giuliano de’ Medici re-entered Florence on the 1st of September and the Holy

40:05

League had forced the Signoria to accept the Medici restoration, Giuliano’s position

40:11

was not secure and he attempted to achieve consensus by working with moderates and Soderini’s

40:18

supporters. Desperate to retain his political offices, Machiavelli now showered the Medici with praise

40:25

in his writings. However, when the radical pro-Medici faction took control of the Signoria, Machiavelli

40:32

was dismissed from his offices on the 7th of November. Worse was to follow in February 1513, when Machiavelli was arrested following the discovery

40:42

of a conspiracy against the Medici. Following an investigation, Machiavelli was to be released upon payment of 1,000 florins,

40:51

but before he could raise the money, Pope Julius died on the 21st of February and Cardinal

40:57

Giovanni de’ Medici was elected in his place, taking the name Leo X.

41:03

The Medici were now unassailable in Florence, and Giuliano declared a general amnesty, allowing

41:10

Machiavelli to go free on the 11th of March.

41:15

After emerging from his prison cell, Machiavelli aspired to return to Florentine public service

41:20

and appealed to Giuliano as well as Pope Leo via his friends in Rome.

41:26

These efforts proved fruitless, and he decided to move his family to one of his properties

41:31

in the countryside south of Florence. Although these surroundings gave him the opportunity to relax, Machiavelli continued to serve as

41:40

a source of advice for his old friend Francesco Vettori, serving as ambassador in Rome.

41:47

The two men discussed the ever-changing diplomatic situation, which saw the Holy League begin

41:52

to disintegrate when Maximilian and the late Julius II turned against Venice.

41:58

Meanwhile, Ferdinand of Aragon signed a truce with Louis XII, giving the French king the

42:04

opportunity to retake Milan. In early May, a French army swept into Italy and conquered much of the duchy of Milan,

42:12

but was soundly defeated by an army of 8,000 Swiss mercenaries fighting for the Holy League.

42:18

Although Machiavelli wrote to Vettori about how the pope should respond to these developments,

42:24

perhaps in an attempt to win the favour of the Medici and return to office, he remained

42:29

unemployed. From his countryside retreat, Machiavelli wrote a short book that would guarantee his

42:37

fame over the centuries. Known as The Prince, its author hoped that the wisdom and insights contained within its

42:44

pages would enable him to gain employment with the Medici. Careful not to mention the Medici directly, Machiavelli gave advice about how a prince

42:54

who came to power through good fortune can effectively consolidate his rule over his

42:59

realm. In this task, he was following in an established tradition of writers and intellectuals offering

43:06

guidance to princes about how to govern. Both classical and Christian writers suggested that the best way for a prince to maintain

43:14

power was to be virtuous, but Machiavelli rejected such idealistic notions and argued

43:21

instead that in the real world, princes who tried to be virtuous always suffered at the

43:27

hands of external and internal enemies. He argued instead that princes must be bold and audacious, and often cited Cesare Borgia

43:36

as an example of an effective ruler in this regard. In order to maintain their position, princes should be motivated by glory and honour rather

43:46

than virtue. Recalling his experiences serving the Florentine government during the ongoing wars, Machiavelli

43:54

argued that in order to deal with external threats, such a prince had to have his own

43:59

citizen militia rather than having to depend on unreliable allies or mercenaries.

44:05

With respect to maintaining internal order and overcoming the factional politics that had plagued Florence for decades, he argued that it was better for a prince to be feared

44:16

than to be loved, and it was this belief which contributed to his reputation as a philosopher

44:23

who justified the doing of evil. Machiavelli hoped to send a copy of The Prince to Giuliano de’ Medici, who spent much of

44:33

his time in Rome and left Florentine matters in the hands of his nephew Lorenzo, the son

44:40

of Piero. In January 1514 he sent an early unfinished draft to Vettori, who was immediately impressed,

44:48

and during the following months Machiavelli worked on refining the work, leaving stronger

44:53

hints that a wise prince should employ experienced and able public servants like himself.

45:00

Aside from political matters, Machiavelli and Vettori found the time to exchange stories

45:05

about their love affairs. Although by now Machiavelli had three children and his wife was expecting a fourth, he continued

45:13

to indulge his passions not only with women but also young boys, one of the darker practices

45:20

from classical antiquity adopted by the men of the Renaissance. In June 1514 These activities allowed Machiavelli some consolation after he was informed by

45:27

Vettori in June 1514 that the Medici were still not well-disposed towards him, and neither

45:33

he nor his book would be welcome in Rome. While Machiavelli was anticipating a lengthy political exile, in December Vettori wrote

45:44

to him on behalf of Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici, the pope’s cousin, asking for advice

45:50

on whether the pope should ally with France or with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire.

45:56

Machiavelli argued in favour of a French alliance, predicting that Louis would achieve victory no matter who the pope supported, but if the pope were to back the wrong horse, Louis might

46:07

try to depose him. By the end of December, Vettori wrote that the letter was well-received by the pope,

46:14

and although there was no offer of employment, the Medici recognised Machiavelli’s talents.

46:21

When Louis died on the 1st of January 1515, his cousin and successor Francis I was equally

46:28

intent on recovering Milan and launched his campaign in the beginning of July.

46:33

The pope had opened negotiations with France but as Francis was unwilling to recognise

46:39

papal sovereignty over the cities of Parma, Reggio, Modena, and Piacenza, he joined the

46:44

anti-French league. On the 13th of September, the French army was surprised by a Swiss force at Marignano

46:52

and was on the verge of defeat before their Venetian allies arrived at the last minute

46:58

and gained victory, enabling Francis to recapture Milan a few weeks later.

47:03

From his position of strength, the king signed a truce with the pope placing the Papal States

47:09

and Florence under his protection in return for Parma and Piacenza.

47:16

Back in July, Lorenzo de’ Piero de’ Medici, who had taken over command of the Florentine

47:21

militia, hadand asked Machiavelli for advice. Before Machiavelli could send over his instructions, Lorenzo had been appointed captain-general

47:30

of the papal army in the place of his uncle Giuliano, who had fallen ill.

47:35

After Francis and Leo came to their agreement, Machiavelli hoped that he could win Lorenzo’s

47:41

favour and rededicated The Prince to him in January 1516.

47:46

However, when he delivered his treatise to the Palazzo Medici, Lorenzo had just received

47:52

a pair of hunting dogs and paid little attention to Machiavelli’s book. An infuriated Machiavelli vowed never to have anything to do with the Medici, and instead

48:03

looked forward to their demise. Recognising that his political career was over, Machiavelli joined a group of Florentine

48:10

intellectuals and writers who met in a secluded garden called the Orti Oricellari.

48:17

Machiavelli began a long poem called The Ass, in which the narrator describes the experience

48:23

of being on the island of the enchantress Circe from Homer’s Odyssey, where he encounters

48:29

the different animals into which Circe had transformed men who arrived on her island.

48:35

Making several digressions concerning Florentine politics, Machiavelli’s animals are references

48:40

to Florence’s political elite, and the narrator’s transformation into an ass represented the

48:47

author’s withdrawal from his former political life. Despite such intentions, regardless of genre, Machiavelli’s literary output could always

48:57

be read as a critique of Florentine politics. During this period he wrote the play Mandragola, a five-act comedy which sees a young Florentine

49:07

man named Callimaco win his way into the bed of Lucrezia, a beautiful childless married

49:14

woman. Pretending to be a doctor, Callimaco offers to help the couple conceive a child with a

49:20

potion made from a mandrake root, but warns them that the first person Lucrezia sleeps

49:26

with would die. Despite her initial reluctance, Lucrezia agrees to sleep with another man.

49:33

Callimaco ditches his doctor’s disguise and allows himself to be kidnapped to perform the task, but even after he reveals his identity, Lucrezia proposes they become lovers, while

49:44

her delighted husband is so grateful for Callimaco’s supposed sacrifice he gives him the keys to

49:51

his house. The Mandragola not only satirised Florentine morality, but may also be read as an allegory

49:58

of Florence being in a sterile union with the Medici, and that any attempt to restore

50:03

her liberty was justified, even by deceit. Machiavelli enjoyed the discussions with his companions at the Orti Oricellari, and soon

50:15

came to the idea that the Florentine society was so corrupt because it failed to learn the lessons of antiquity.

50:21

He started work on the Discourses on Titus Livius, framed as a commentary on the historian

50:28

Livy’s history of Rome, but also an attempt to establish a set of principles for the exercise

50:33

of political power. While Machiavelli continued to view politics through a realist rather than idealistic lens,

50:41

he was no longer trying to curry favour with the Medici. In the Discourses, Machiavelli concludes that cities and states have only achieved greatness

50:51

when they have been at liberty, and as soon as they fell under tyranny their fortunes

50:56

began to decline. For Machiavelli, liberty not only meant freedom fromof oppression, but also the ability of

51:03

citizens to enjoy equal political rights, and for them to be willing to place the common

51:09

good above individual interests. Echoing his earlier ideas in The Prince, Machiavelli’s conception of this civic duty set aside any

51:19

moral considerations. In order to guarantee liberty, Machiavelli argued that states had to eliminate class

51:26

divisions, enforce the law, establish a state religion, and be led by men of virtue.

51:33

At the end of the book, Machiavelli lamented that Florence lacked the virtuous leader it

51:38

sorely needed to eliminate corruption and overcome factionalism but hoped that one would

51:45

emerge soon. Soon after completing the Discourses, Machiavelli was presented with an unexpected opportunity

51:52

for a return to public office with the death of Lorenzo de’ Medici at the age of 26 in

51:58

May 1519. The pope sent his cousin Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici to take temporary charge of Florence,

52:06

and the cardinal attempted to bridge the factional divide by reforming the city’s constitution

52:12

and widening political participation. Machiavelli saw an opportunity to return to favour and serve the new moderate government,

52:20

and once again turned to writing in an attempt to secure employment. Following the death of Emperor Maximilian in January 1519, his grandson Charles had

52:30

been elected to succeed him. Charles was already the King of Spain following the death of his maternal grandfather King

52:38

Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, from whom he also inherited the kingdoms of Naples and

52:45

Sicily in southern Italy. As Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, he could threaten Florence and the Papal States from

52:52

both north and south. In October 1519, after being unable to come to terms with King Francis, Pope Leo came

53:01

to an agreement with Charles against the French. Florence would inevitably be drawn into the conflict.

53:08

In November, Machiavelli set about writing a treatise on military matters in an attempt

53:13

to gain Giulio’s favour. In The Art of War, Machiavelli sets out his ideas on the theory and practice of war through

53:23

the mouthpiece of the mercenary captain Fabrizio Colonna. Echoing his earlier writings, Machiavelli argues that an effective military force is

53:32

the best protector of a state’s liberty, and that a citizen militia is preferable to

53:37

mercenaries. By doing so, he was seeking to justify his record as the organiser of the Florentine

53:44

militia under Soderini’s government. In addition to organisation and training, Machiavelli discussed weapons and fortifications

53:52

extensively, championing the latest developments in military technology including firearms

53:58

and the new-style star-shaped fortresses which provided better protection against artillery.

54:04

The Art of War closes with the prediction that whichever state effectively brings into

54:09

practice the theories and technologies described in the book would conquer the whole of Italy.

54:16

Dedicated to Lorenzo Strozzi, a close ally of the Medici, The Art of War facilitated

54:22

a meeting between Machiavelli and the cardinal in March 1520.

54:27

Giulio was impressed enough to send a recommendation to Pope Leo, who agreed to give Machiavelli

54:33

a second chance. In April 1520, Machiavelli was informed that he would be commissioned to write a history

54:42

of the Florentine state, though before he was awarded the contract in November, he was

54:47

asked to carry out a few minor diplomatic missions to prove his worth to the Medici.

54:54

Machiavelli conducted himself so well that in addition to his work as a historian, he

54:59

was asked by the cardinal to draw up proposals for constitutional reform.

55:04

In his report, Machiavelli examined the changes in government Florence experienced over the

55:09

past century and argued Florence was suited to a republican government.

55:15

Acknowledging that such a proposal threatened to diminish the Medici’s authority, Machiavelli

55:20

suggested abolishing the Signoria and having the pope appoint a body of 65 men who would

55:27

serve for life and take turns carrying out the functions of the Signoria.

55:32

Machiavelli also proposed establishing a council of 200 citizens appointed by the pope to satisfy

55:39

the middle classes, and reviving the Great Council to represent the popular masses.

55:45

Recognising that the Medici would be unwilling to re-establish the Great Council, Machiavelli

55:50

proposed that the pope and the cardinal should be given authority over the judicial system

55:55

and the militia. Although these proposals proved too radical, Machiavelli continued to enjoy the Medici’s

56:03

confidence. In January 1521, as Machiavelli continued to work on his history, war broke out between

56:11

Francis I and Charles V, prompting the pope to sign an alliance with Charles, who agreed

56:17

to seize Milan from the French and guarantee Medici rule in Florence in return for military

56:23

support. Although he may have hoped to play some diplomatic role during this latest round of hostilities,

56:30

Machiavelli was instead asked to resolve a dispute involving the Franciscan Order in

56:35

Florence’s favour, which he successfully did so by invoking the authority of the pope.

56:41

Meanwhile, the fate of Italy hung in the balance as the French and Papal-Imperial armies prepared

56:47

to do battle. Machiavelli used this opportunity to publish The Art of War and sent copies to the leading

56:54

men of the day. Since he no longer harboured political ambitions, his primary motivation was to encourage best

57:01

practice in the Papal-Imperial army. By the end of the year the French army began to disintegrate and on the 20th of November

57:09

the Milanese rose in rebellion, forcing the French to withdraw from Italy.

57:15

In the winter of 1521 Machiavelli resumed work on his history, but Florence was once

57:21

again rocked by instability when Pope Leo X died on the 1st of December.

57:27

The death of the pope significantly weakened the Medici’s control over Florence. With the promise of French support, Cardinal Francesco Soderini plotted to expel the Medici

57:38

and return his brother Piero to power. Even though Machiavelli had been friends and allies with the Soderini, he continued to

57:46

support the Medici and proposed a set of constitutional reforms which reflected those he had suggested

57:53

a couple of years earlier. The changing political landscape prompted Cardinal Giulio to accept Machiavelli’s

58:00

recommendations, but before they could be implemented, the Soderini plot to assassinate the cardinal was uncovered and defeated in April 1522.

58:09

The Medici hold on power was as secure as ever, especially when Piero Soderini died

58:15

a few weeks after the failed coup. Machiavelli mourned the death of his old friend, as well as the exile of many of his young

58:23

friends from the Orti Oricellari who had supported the anti-Medici plot.

58:29

Machiavelli’s spirits were further dampened by the death of his younger brother Totto in June.

58:36

On the 14th of September 1523, Leo X’s successor Adrian VI died, and Cardinal Giulio de’

58:44

Medici was elected Pope Clement VII. Although the new pope had supported Charles V in his wars against Francis, neither the

58:53

papacy nor Florence could bear the costs of continued fighting. Despite the absence of papal support, the imperial armies pushed the French over the

59:02

Alps. In 1524, Clement turned his attention to Florentine affairs and sent his illegitimate cousins

59:09

Ippolito and Alessandro Medici to rule over the city. While peace was restored to Florence, Machiavelli began an affair with the actress and singer

59:20

Barbera Salutati, to whom he dedicated several love poems.

59:25

Recognising that he was mistreating his wife, Machiavelli wrote the comedic play Clizia,

59:31

mocking a married man who embarrasses himself during an attempt to chase after a young girl.

59:36

The play was an instant success following its premiere on the 13th of January 1525.

59:44

In March 1525, Machiavelli completed his history of Florence, covering more than a thousand

59:50

years of the city’s history from the decline of the western Roman Empire to the death of

59:56

Lorenzo the Magnificent. Throughout the book, Machiavelli was keen to emphasise the city’s impact on Italian

1:00:03

and European affairs. As with his political writings, Machiavelli’s history was not only a retelling of Florence’s

1:00:11

past but also served as a guide for how the Medici could learn from the city’s history

1:00:16

to keep the city united. He documented the endless cycle of factional conflict which caused the government to be

1:00:23

overthrown on a regular basis, criticising the tendency for each faction to exclude their

1:00:29

opponents once they had taken power. By commenting on the Medici’s tendency towards tyrannical government, Machiavelli was advising

1:00:37

them to open up the government to everyone, and endeavour to balance the interests of

1:00:43

all the political classes. By doing so, not only would they protect the city from internal and external enemies, but

1:00:50

they would also enable Florence to recover its liberty and glory.

1:00:56

While Machiavelli was finishing his history, the imperial army won a decisive victory at

1:01:01

Pavia on the 24th of February, during which Francis had been taken prisoner.

1:01:07

The battle was disastrous for the pope, who had been forced to side with France in late

1:01:12

1524. During Clement’s negotiations with Charles, the emperor demanded that Florence, Siena,

1:01:19

and Lucca should be subject to imperial rule. These terms were unacceptable and the pope knew that the alternative was war, even though

1:01:28

he had no army. When Machiavelli presented his history to the pope in May, he also delivered a proposal

1:01:35

for the establishment of a citizen militia in the Romagna to defend against the imperial

1:01:41

army. Although Clement supported the idea, when Machiavelli arrived in the Romagna he was

1:01:46

informed that the scheme was unworkable. In January 1526, France and Spain signed a treaty and Francis renounced his claims on

1:01:55

Milan and Naples, but when Francis was released from prison, he renounced the treaty and prepared

1:02:01

for war. The pope was afraid that Charles would march on Rome, and Florence stood in its way.

1:02:08

Machiavelli examined the city’s defences and reported that the walls would have to be strengthened in order to withstand modern artillery.

1:02:16

In April Machiavelli was summoned to Rome, where he was asked to take charge of the city’s

1:02:23

fortifications. On the 22nd of May, the anti-imperial League of Cognac was formed, bringing together the

1:02:30

Papacy, France, Venice, and Florence. By the end of June, the League’s armies under Francesco della Rovere were on the outskirts

1:02:38

of Milan. In May and June, Machiavelli busied himself overseeing the repairs to Florence’s walls,

1:02:45

but by early July he was sent to join the League’s army. While della Rovere hesitated to launch an assault on Milan, in September Machiavelli

1:02:55

received news from Rome that the powerful Colonna family had built up an army to oppose

1:03:00

the pope, and Clement was forced to escape to the Castel Sant’ Angelo.

1:03:06

Thereafter, the situation only got worse, when an imperial army of 16,000 German landsknechts

1:03:13

swept through northern Italy in November and seemed destined to move on to Tuscany.

1:03:18

In February 1527 Machiavelli was sent to the League’s headquarters to determine whether

1:03:24

its armies would defend Florence. Upon his arrival, he learned that della Rovere was unwilling to carry out his orders due

1:03:32

to a dispute with the pope. Although Clement managed to sign a truce with the imperial army, the underpaid landsknechts

1:03:39

refused to stand by the truce and went on the offensive, defying their commanders.

1:03:45

Belatedly recognising the danger, Clement hurriedly renewed his alliance with the French

1:03:50

and Venetians and gave in to della Rovere’s demands. In April, the imperial troops reached Arezzo and were poised to attack Florence but decided

1:04:00

to march on Rome rather than risk battle with della Rovere. On the 6th of May, the imperial army sacked Rome, and less than two weeks later on the

1:04:10

16th of May, the Medici were expelled from Florence and the republic restored.

1:04:17

When Machiavelli returned to Florence, he welcomed the restoration of the republic and hoped that he would return to office, but his ill-health and his association with the

1:04:26

Medici meant that he was overlooked. The disappointment caused his health to decline further, and on the 21st of June, he died

1:04:35

at the age of 58 and was later buried at the Church of Santa Croce in Florence, sharing

1:04:42

his resting place with the scientist Galileo and the artist Michelangelo.

1:04:47

Niccolò Machiavelli dedicated his life to serving his native Florence during a period

1:04:53

of political instability and constant warfare in the Italian peninsula.

1:04:59

Although he preferred a republican government at heart and spent much of his career serving

1:05:04

the Florentine republic, he was willing to set aside any factional sympathies in order

1:05:09

to promote the city’s stability and prosperity. His experience as a diplomat responding to constantly shifting alliances gave him a particular

1:05:18

insight into the realities of political and diplomatic affairs, and these insights have

1:05:24

remained influential over the centuries through his political writings. His advice for political actors to dismiss moral and ethical considerations when exercising

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power horrified Christian moralists and liberal philosophers alike and gave him a bad reputation.

1:05:42

The Prince is often seen as a handbook for tyrants and dictators, while the term Machiavellianism

1:05:49

has entered the English language to refer to manipulative behaviour. Although he is best known as a political writer, Machiavelli also wrote poetry and fiction

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during his distinguished literary career, his comedic plays were particularly well-received

1:06:05

during his lifetime, while his letters to friends are full of humour and wit.

1:06:10

What do you think of Niccolò Machiavelli? Does he deserve his mainstream reputation as an advocate of manipulative and deceitful

1:06:20

political methods? Or was he a man of republican principles whose political remedies were intended to create

1:06:27

strong and stable states which guaranteed prosperity and liberty for their inhabitants?

1:06:34

Please let us know in the comment section and in the meantime, thank you very much for

1:06:40

watching.

0:05

Biographical Script of Niccolò Machiavelli The man known to history as Niccolò Machiavelli was born on the 3rd of May 1469 in Florence,

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in central Italy. Niccolò’s father was Bernardo Machiavelli, who had studied law and gained a reputation

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as one of the leading legal minds of the time, with a great interest in classical literature

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and philosophy. However, his family’s association with political opposition to the rule of the Medici family

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combined with him falling into tax arrears meant that Bernardo was unable to practise

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as a lawyer, and he struggled to make ends meet using the income from his farm in the

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country. Bernardo’s debt threatened to make life difficult for his young son Niccolò, since

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Florentine laws did not allow the sons of debtors to hold public office, and in 1476

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restrictions were placed on their ability to inherit, since they would have to assume responsibility for any unpaid taxes.

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Niccolò’s mother, Bartolomea Machiavelli, had grown up in a wealthy household in which

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she received an education that was usually forbidden to young girls of the time. She first married the apothecary Niccolò Benizi and had a daughter with him, but after

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the death of her husband in 1457 she married Bernardo, with whom she had four children.

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She appears to have carried out business on her own initiative even though there were limitations on the sorts of economic and commercial activities women could take part in, and she

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otherwise spent her free time playing music and reading and writing.

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The young Machiavelli was born in a large house near the south bank of the River Arno,

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sometimes called the Palazzo Machiavelli, which was divided between four branches of

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the family and housed some thirty people in total. In spite of these cramped conditions, the Machiavelli were an old and prestigious family

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in Florence who made and maintained their fortune as lawyers, bankers, and merchants.

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Although Niccolò would follow his family’s footsteps in joining the professional classes in Florence, he would leave behind a legacy in his writings that made him the most famous

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and notorious member of his clan. Despite his family’s status and intellectual credentials, Niccolò Machiavelli’s early

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prospects did not seem very bright, even though his native city of Florence was experiencing

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its Golden Age as a centre of artistic creation and intellectual thought.

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During the medieval period, Florence was one of many independent city-states in northern

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Italy, and by the 15th century it had become one of the wealthiest. Although it continued to follow some republican traditions, Florentine politics was dominated

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by the wealthy Medici family who made their fortune in banking. The Medici did not hold any formal political offices but used their money and influence

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to control the city’s political institutions, including the Signoria, the supreme executive

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body consisting of nine members and headed by the gonfaloniere di giustizia, or standard-bearer

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of justice. Under Medici influence, Florence became the centre of the Italian Renaissance, an artistic

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and cultural movement motivated by a desire to revive and build on classical antiquity.

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The architectural jewel of the Renaissance in Florence was the octagonal dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, designed by Filippo Brunelleschi and completed in 1436.

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In December 1469, the year of Machiavelli’s birth, the 20-year-old Lorenzo de’ Medici

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succeeded his father as the de facto ruler of the city, and under his leadership the

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city would rise to new glories, earning him the nickname Lorenzo the Magnificent.

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During the 15th century, knowledge of Latin and Greek became increasingly important for

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aspiring Florentine public officials. An admirer of classical antiquity himself, Bernardo Machiavelli intended for his son

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to have a classical education which would open up a career in the law, state administration,

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or the Church. After learning to read between the ages of four and six, Niccolò began studying Latin

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at the age of seven. Despite his father’s best efforts, Niccolò’s education was often disrupted.

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After a failed conspiracy against the Medici in 1478, war broke out between Florence and

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the Pope, who ruled over a large stretch of territory in central Italy. With his income reduced due to the impact of the war on his farms south of the city,

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Bernardo decided to cut costs and send Niccolò to study with Benedetto Riccardini, who was

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already teaching a distant cousin. In early 1479, the bubonic plague struck Florence and Bernardo decided to send Niccolò to live

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with relations in the countryside while remaining in the city himself. During the summer Bernardo fell seriously ill with the plague but survived the experience,

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enabling him to turn his attention to his son’s continued education, and in January 1480 Niccolò was sent to study arithmetic with Piero Maria Caladri, a distinguished

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teacher. After two years of arithmetic, in November 1481 Bernardo Machiavelli sent Niccolò and

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his younger brother Totto to study with Paolo Sassi, a priest and grammar teacher.

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Sassi taught Niccolò classical literature, including the works of such esteemed writers

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such as Cicero, Virgil and Livy. After learning how to read and understand the rhetorical and literary techniques they

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used, Niccolò was taught how to translate letters from Italian to Latin, imitating Cicero’s

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style. Since this instruction was intended to prepare students for a career in the law or government

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service, the letters Niccolò was asked to translate were designed to reflect real-life scenarios that he might face in his future career, while the classical texts he studied

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usually included discussions of morality and virtue which formed part of Florence’s civic

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culture. After studying with Sassi, Machiavelli enrolled in the university between the ages of sixteen

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and eighteen, where he attended lectures by the leading scholars of the day on the most

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influential classical texts. Machiavelli began to use the literary talents he developed during his studies to gain favour

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with the Medici. Lorenzo the Magnificent died in 1492, leaving three sons, Piero, Giovanni, and Giuliano,

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and Machiavelli wrote a number of verses in praise of Giuliano. However, Lorenzo’s eldest son and successor Piero de’ Medici proved to be a weak political

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leader, and when King Charles VIII of France marched into Italy in the summer of 1494 to

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assert his claim to the Kingdom of Naples in southern Italy, Piero was unable to resist

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and agreed to capitulate without consulting the Signoria. The furious Florentines overthrew Piero but struggled to form a new government, enabling

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the priest Girolamo Savonarola to take political charge with widespread popular support.

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Preaching from his pulpit in the cathedral, the moralistic Savonarola denounced the wealth of the Medici and claimed that the French invasion was divine punishment for the city’s

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sins, and under his influence luxurious items such as jewellery, paintings, books of poetry

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and musical instruments were burned in the ‘bonfires of the vanities.’

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Although the Machiavelli family had been among the opposition to the Medici, Niccolò’s

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efforts to seek favour with them threatened to backfire. Meanwhile, his mother Bartolomea had died in 1496, and his father Bernardo’s income

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remained low, leaving Niccolò and his brother Totto in extreme hardship.

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During this time Machiavelli worked on a translation of the Andria by the Roman satirist Terence

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into his native Tuscan dialect. Rather than a faithful translation of the Latin original, Machiavelli added his own

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vulgar jokes and inserted subtle references criticising Savonarola.

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At around this time, Machiavelli met Marcello Adriani, who had been appointed the professor

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of poetry and rhetoric at the university in 1494. Although Savonarola preached that it was sinful to study the classics of pagan Rome and Greece,

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Adriani promoted the wisdom of the ancients as a guide to contemporary society, and in

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particular encouraged his students to apply rhetoric in the cause of republican liberty.

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By 1497, Savonarola’s authority in Florence began to diminish, as Charles VIII signed

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a treaty with the League of Venice led by the pope and withdrew from Italian affairs.

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The Florentine priest had depended on the French alliance and was left exposed to attack

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by the papacy and its allies in the League. When Florence received reassurances that the city would be left alone if they stopped Savonarola

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from preaching, his political opponents moved against him. The Signoria struggled to deal with the political turmoil that followed, and the death of the

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long-serving chancellor Bartolomeo Scala further heightened tensions.

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The Florentines were determined to choose a compromise candidate who was not associated with either Savonarola or the Medici.

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Machiavelli’s lack of political connections was now an asset and in February 1498 he ran

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for the office of second chancellor, which dealt with the city’s relationship to subject towns and domestic matters.

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Although he was unsuccessful, his friend and mentor Marcello Adriani won election to the

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first chancellorship. Meanwhile, the political tensions in Florence showed no sign of abating, and the Signoria’s

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reluctance to silence Savonarola prompted Pope Alexander VI to place the city under

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a papal interdict. Eager to avoid the wrath of the Church falling on their city, the Florentines arrested Savonarola

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and hanged him and two of his associates on the 23rd of May and cracked down on his political

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supporters. With the incumbent second chancellor stripped of his offices, the Signoria looked for a

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replacement, and on the 19th of June 1498, the 29-year-old Niccolò Machiavelli became

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second chancellor. The fall of Savonarola transformed Machiavelli’s political fortunes overnight, making him one

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of the most important officials in the Florentine government. It was a difficult time for the city, which was not only facing a constitutional crisis

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but was also heavily indebted due to the ongoing war. Following the unexpected death of Charles VIII in April 1498, Florence mounted a campaign

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to reconquer the port city of Pisa, which had rebelled against Florentine rule during the French invasion four years earlier.

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Taking advantage of the situation, a Venetian army crossed into Florentine territory from the northeast, including a detachment led by Piero de’ Medici and his brothers.

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With the Venetians threatening the city of Arezzo, the Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli

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was ordered to withdraw from Pisa to confront the Venetian threat. In the meantime, the new French king Louis XII aimed to attack Milan and to repair relations

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with both the pope and Venice, threatening to leave Florence further isolated.

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The Florentine leaders were now faced with choosing to stick to France, or to switch sides and unite with its Italian neighbours against France.

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Although as second chancellor Machiavelli did not have any formal responsibility for diplomatic affairs, previous holders of the office routinely played a diplomatic role,

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sometimes even serving as ambassadors. In March 1499, Machiavelli was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to negotiate with

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a mercenary captain who refused to fight, carrying out his instructions effectively

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and signallinged that Florence was not going to back down. Meanwhile, a peace offer from Venice in April proved unacceptable to both Florence and Pisa,

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signalling that the Venetians wanted to withdraw from the war and were now focusing their efforts

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on potential hostilities against the Ottoman Empire to the east. This encouraged the Florentines to renew the campaign against Pisa, and Machiavelli compiled

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a report summarising the opinions of Florence’s generals, which concluded that Pisa could

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only be taken by a direct assault. However, he was less successful in July when he returned empty handed from negotiations

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with the formidable Caterina Sforza, the regent of Forli, an ally of both Florence and Milan

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who was being forced to choose between the two. When French troops crossed into Italy and attacked Milan in late July, the Florentines

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were obliged once again to side with France. The Florentine assault on Pisa in August was initially successful and the city walls were

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breached, but rather than exploit his advantage Vitelli hesitated and camped beneath the walls,

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while an outbreak of malaria weakened the Florentine army and gave the Pisans the chance to recover.

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The Signoria was outraged but sent Vitelli reinforcements to finish the job, but the

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commander raised the siege before he received them. When the Signoria received letters from Louis XII showing that Vitelli was in contact with

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Milan, he was arrested and brought back to Florence. Machiavelli was convinced of Vitelli’s guilt and approved his execution on the 1st of October.

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Meanwhile, the Florentine army continued to struggle in Pisa, prompting the Signoria to

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ask Louis for military assistance. When 5,000 Swiss mercenaries arrived in the spring of 1500, they were unwilling to fight.

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Machiavelli was given the task to persuade the Swiss to fight but was unable to prevent a mutiny in July, when a group of mercenaries took a Florentine commissioner prisoner and

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threatened to kill him if their demands for their pay were not met. When Florence refused to be intimidated and prepared to fight, the Swiss backed down and

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left, but with their departure the Florentine army was no longer in a position to continue

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the siege of Pisa. The failure of the siege led to a breakdown in relations between Florence and its French

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ally, with both sides blaming each other for the misfortune. Machiavelli was one of two envoys sent to France to make the Signoria’s case that

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the Swiss mercenaries had conspired with the Pisans and Florence would not make any further

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payments for the mutinous soldiers. The Florentine envoys struggled to make their case during a series of meetings in August

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and September with the king and his adviser Cardinal Georges d’Amboise.

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The French were insistent that the Signoria had to pay the 38,000 francs it still owed

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to the king, but as Machiavelli did not have the authority to agree to these demands, he

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could only write to the Signoria asking for further instructions and to send a permanent ambassador to France.

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Although the Signoria realised that there was no other choice but to pay Louis and maintain the French alliance, the city was already short on funds and unwilling to send an ambassador.

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However, Florence now needed help not only to retake Pisa but also to defend its own

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lands. Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, had conquered the cities of Forli and Imola

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in the Romagna region and threatened Florentine territory from the east. Louis was alarmed at these developments and promised Machiavelli he would provide military

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assistance if Borgia were to attack Florence or Bologna, while the Signoria was prepared

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to pay 10,000 ducats immediately. In December 1500, the new Florentine ambassador had arrived in France, allowing Machiavelli

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to return home. By May 1501, Florence had still not yet signed an agreement with Louis when Borgia crossed

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into Florentine territory. In an effort to secure French help as soon as possible, the Signoria sent the king 20,000

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florins. Although Borgia promised Florence he would not attack the city, he chose to blackmail

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the Florentines by demanding to be appointed captain-general on an annual salary of 36,000

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florins, while also demanding the restoration of the Medici. The Signoria was incensed but had little choice with the prospect of Borgia’s army of 10,000

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men on its doorstep and agreed to negotiate. While Borgia dropped his demands for a change in government, he was appointed captain-general

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even though the city had no means to pay him the sum he demanded. However, in May Machiavelli heard that Louis had written to Borgia to leave Florentine

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territory immediately, and on the 26th of May Florence received news that 30,000 French

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troops were on their way to Naples, passing through Tuscany on the way. In early June, the French army approached Florence, and Borgia was forced to withdraw

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without receiving a single penny from Florence. Machiavelli spent most of 1501 attempting to calm the factional conflict which had broken

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out in the nearby subject city of Pistoia. For most of the year, Machiavelli and the Florentine representatives were unable to

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achieve much, but by the end of August both sides were in the process of negotiating peace

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without Florence’s involvement. The Signoria was afraid that both factions would unite and turn against Florence, and

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in October Machiavelli was sent to the city to gather intelligence. Within days factional violence began to break out again, and on the 18th of October Machiavelli

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was appointed assistant commissioner general with instructions to maintain the peace agreement

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while also ensuring Pistoia’s subject status. Thanks to Machiavelli’s efforts, peace was restored on the 20th, and Florence’s political

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and military situation much improved significantly. Away from his political duties, in August 1501 the 32-year-old Machiavelli married the

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20-year old Marietta Corsini, who hailed from a far wealthier family than Machiavelli’s

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own. Although it was likely an arranged marriage, it proved to be a successful and loving partnership,

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and Marietta would often look after her husband’s properties when he was abroad on government

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business. Despite these successes, Florence was by no means out of danger.

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After helping King Louis capture Naples, Borgia turned his attention back north with an eye

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to expanding his new duchy of Romagna and demanding that Florence fulfil the agreement

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it signed in May. Rumours that Giuliano de’ Medici had offered 70,000 florins for French support in restoring

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the Medici to power in Florence alarmed the Signoria, and in April 1502 it agreed to pay

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Louis 150,000 ducats in exchange for a promise of French protection.

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Newly emboldened, the Florentines stepped up their efforts against Pisa, only to receive

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the news that the city of Arezzo had been captured by Vitellozzo Vitelli, brother of

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the mercenary captain executed by the Florentines a couple of years earlier. Later in June, Piero de’ Medici arrived in Arezzo to an enthusiastic welcome.

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Fearing the return of the Medici, the Signoria dispatched Machiavelli to assist Francesco

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Soderini in negotiations with Borgia himself. Beginning at the end of June, negotiations with Borgia in Urbino started poorly as the

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Duke of Romagna threatened to restore the Medici and reminded Florence of its political

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and military weakness. Although Borgia dismissed the notion that Louis would support Florence, in early July

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Louis was already leading an army into Italy to defend Florence the city against Borgia.

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Even though a desperate Borgia had moderated his terms, the Florentines were confident enough to break off negotiations.

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Although Florence managed to outmanoeuvre Borgia on this occasion with French support,

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Machiavelli warned the authorities not to underestimate the Duke of Romagna. The crisis in Arezzo prompted the Florentines to make constitutional changes seeking greater

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political continuity. The gonfaloniere di giustizia had been Florence’s most prominent political leader, but as with

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the rest of the members of the Signoria he served only a two-month term.

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At the end of August, the Great Council agreed to a gonfaloniere for life and appointed the

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experienced diplomat Piero Soderini to the office. As the brother of Francesco Soderini, whom Machiavelli had befriended on their mission

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to Borgia, the appointment was a positive sign. In the meantime, Borgia had been in Milan repairing his relations with King Louis, blaming

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Vitelli and his fellow mercenaries for the outrages against Florence, and by early 1502

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he regained the king’s favour and even had his blessing to attack Bologna. Infuriated by Borgia’s conduct in Milan, Vitelli and his fellow disgruntled mercenaries

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conspired to stir up rebellion in Romagna and offered an alliance with Florence.

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The Florentines saw this approach as an opportunity to make an alliance with Borgia from a position

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of strength, and in early October Machiavelli was dispatched to Imola to lead the mission.

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Machiavelli found Borgia eager to strike a deal and help Florence recover Pisa and Arezzo,

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but the Florentines could not make any agreement without first consulting Louis.

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As the negotiations dragged on, Borgia’s negotiating position strengthened as the rebellious

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mercenaries and their Bolognese allies proposed that he should abandon his efforts against

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Bologna and attack Florence instead. Machiavelli wrote back to Florence advising his political superiors to make a deal immediately,

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but by the time he was given the authority to do so at the end of October, Borgia was

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already in advanced negotiations with the mercenaries and Bologna. Although the agreement was not concluded until the beginning of December, Machiavelli saw

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that Florence lost its opportunity and requested to return home. The request was denied, and instead he was to follow Borgia on campaign as he left Imola

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on the 10th of December to meet with the mercenary captains he had re-employed.

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Although Machiavelli was relieved to learn that Borgia decided against attacking Florentine territory, he was afraid Borgia could turn his army on Florence at any time.

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After restoring his authority over the Romagna, at the end of December Borgia arrested the

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mercenary captains who rebelled against him and executed them over the following days.

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This show of strength finally convinced the Signoria to send a special ambassador to Romagna

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and allowed Machiavelli to return home in January 1503. Although the negotiations with Borgia had not been entirely successful, Machiavelli

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was by now an experienced diplomat and retained the support of the leading political figures

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in the city, enabling him to easily return to office as second chancellor.

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Upon his return, he was almost immediately asked by Soderini to draft a speech for him

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persuading the Florentine people to accept new taxes to finance an increase in military

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expenditure. Machiavelli eloquently argued that Florence had to build up its military capacity in order

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to more effectively negotiate with powerful men such as King Louis and Cesare Borgia,

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and past experience had shown that political tides could turn quickly and the city had

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to be prepared to confront all potential threats. When Soderini delivered the speech on the 28th of March, it was well received and Machiavelli

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became a trusted adviser to the gonfaloniere.

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In April 1503, relations between France and the Borgias had deteriorated to the point

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that conflict appeared inevitable. Pope Alexander set about forming an anti-French league and reached out to Florence, offering

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to recognise the border between Florence and the Duchy of Romagna, but Florence was not

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ready to abandon its French ally, especially as a French army would soon arrive in Tuscany.

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Having seen Borgia at close quarters, Machiavelli warned his superiors not to underestimate

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him, and in August he wrote a report describing how effectively Borgia had dealt with the

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rebellion of his mercenary captains and his cunning ploy to trap Vitelli and his associates.

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At around the same time, Machiavelli was working on a report advising how Florence should respond

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should Arezzo rise up again and join Borgia’s cause. Drawing on lessons from Roman history, he argued that rebellious cities should either

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be treated with kindness or punished severely, and that Florence’s policy of moderation

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had not been effective. Although Machiavelli proposed a pre-emptive strike against Arezzo, his superiors were

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afraid that any action would encourage its citizens to side with Borgia.

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The arrival of a French army heading south to Naples diverted Borgia’s attention, but

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the French were unable to spare any reinforcements for Florence.

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On the 18th of August, Pope Alexander VI died, possibly from poisoning while at dinner with

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one of his cardinals. Cesare had fallen ill at the same dinner and hurriedly made his way to Rome to influence

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the election of a new pope who would support his interests. He was initially confirmed in his offices by the newly elected Pius III, but upon arriving

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in Rome his opponents took to the streets and forced him to take refuge in the Castel

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Sant’Angelo. When the 64-year-old Pope Pius died on the 18th of October after less than a month in

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office, Borgia supported the candidacy of Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, who promised

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to confirm him as captain-general of the Church. Machiavelli was sent to Rome to observe the papal conclave on the 31st of October, when

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della Rovere was elected unanimously and took the name Julius II.

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Although Florence welcomed the election, Machiavelli was cautious, knowing that the new pope could

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not deliver on all the promises he had made. In November, when Venetian troops captured Imola and threatened to take the whole of

27:52

the Romagna, Machiavelli received assurances of the pope’s support if the Venetians were

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to attack Florence. Meanwhile, Borgia was infuriated upon hearing his duchy was occupied by the Venetians and

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began to behave erratically, doubting the pope would fulfil his promises.

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In late November Julius arrested Borgia, and by early 1504 he was a prisoner in Spain.

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The fall of Borgia eliminated one of Florence’s most formidable enemies, but military developments

28:26

in Naples caused further concerns. In May 1503, Naples had been captured by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, an officer in the

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service of the Spanish kingdom of Aragon. In late December, a French army sent to retake the city was defeated by Gonzalo, leaving

28:45

France considerably weakened. Florence was now vulnerable to the Spanish in the south, the Venetians to the east, not

28:53

to mention the possibility of an invasion by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, whose

28:58

empire included much of Germany and had once incorporated northern Italy. Maximilian’s predecessors had been crowned emperor in Rome, often forcing a reluctant

29:09

pope to do so by military invasion. In such an event, Florence could not rely on continued French military assistance, and

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in January Machiavelli was sent to France to confer with King Louis. Although the king promised that he would makde peace with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire

29:28

and then support the Florentines against Venice, under the terms of the Franco-Spanish treaty,

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Venice was placed under Spanish protection. Machiavelli returned to Florence in early March frustrated with his fruitless mission,

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while the Florentines prepared for war with Aragon. In May, Gonzalo sent a detachment to Pisa and declared that the city was under the protection

29:53

of King Ferdinand of Aragon, seeking to provoke a war with Florence.

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The city’s morale remained high, and when Michelangelo’s magnificent sculpture of David was completed and moved to the Piazza della Signoria on the 14th of May, the Florentines

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saw it as a symbol of defiance against a stronger foe. The Florentines decided that they had to capture Pisa before the Aragonese arrived in force,

30:20

and devised a plan to build two canals to divert the flow of the River Arno in order

30:25

to dry up Pisa’s port and prevent the city from being supplied by sea.

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Machiavelli was tasked with supervising the scheme, but soon began to have doubts about

30:35

the original plans and suggested an alternative proposed by Leonardo da Vinci, but by the

30:42

end of September the project was abandoned. Piero Soderini had been an enthusiastic supporter of the scheme, and its failure left the gonfaloniere

30:53

politically weakened. Machiavelli spent early 1505 attempting to shore up Soderini’s authority, but the prospect

31:01

of a Medici restoration was all too real, especially if Florence were to be defeated

31:07

by the Aragonese army. On the 17th of August 1505, the Florentine army clashed with the Aragonese invasion force

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of 3,000 men under the command of Bartolomeo d’Alviano.

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Both sides were evenly matched in terms of numbers, after several hours of bitter fighting,

31:27

the Florentines emerged triumphant. The success encouraged Soderini and the Florentine government to make another attempt at Pisa,

31:36

and Machiavelli was closely involved in the preparations for the campaign. Although the campaign started well and the capture of Pisa seemed inevitable, disagreements

31:47

among the Florentine commanders fatally undermined the assault, and by mid-September the Florentine

31:54

army was forced to withdraw in the wake of additional Spanish reinforcements.

31:59

Once again military failure called into question Soderini’s leadership, and the Great Council

32:05

refused to approve more taxes for the effort. With Florence in desperate need tof more manpower, Soderini agreed to Machiavelli’s suggestion

32:15

to revive a citizen militia, and the latter set about recruiting men from the Tuscan countryside.

32:22

On the 15th of February 400 new recruits paraded through the city, and Machiavelli was widely

32:28

praised for his efforts recruiting and training the men, even though the force had not yet

32:33

received official recognition by the Great Council. In the summer of 1506, Pope Julius II planned to restore the papacy’s position in the

32:43

Romagna and requested Florence’s assistance for the campaign. Although Machiavelli was sent to Rome to negotiate with the pope, Julius began his campaign without

32:53

the Florentine troops he requested. Between September and late October, Machiavelli accompanied the pope in his march northwards,

33:02

and Julius successfully took Perugia and ousted its lord Giampaolo Baglioni, a mercenary captain

33:09

who had formerly been in the service of Florence but had changed sides. The papal army’s success in Perugia was welcomed by Florence, and the city eventually

33:20

sent Julius the contingent he requested for the invasion of Bologna, which was captured

33:25

on the 1st of November. Machiavelli returned home to Florence with an admiration for the pope’s boldness and

33:32

decisiveness in battle, qualities which earned Julius the nickname of ‘warrior pope.’

33:39

Machiavelli hoped to inspire Florence with the same boldness that the pope had shown and spent the rest of the year making the case for his militia, which had now grown

33:48

to five thousand men. On the 6th of December, the bill that Machiavelli drafted was passed by the Great Council, and

33:56

he was appointed to oversee the militia’s operations. Machiavelli spent the early months of 1507 working on the militia, where he proved a

34:07

successful organiser despite his lack of military experience, and within weeks small detachments

34:13

were already raiding the Pisan countryside. In the meantime, Florentine diplomatic initiatives to secure help from France or Aragon in its

34:22

war with Pisa proved unsuccessful. As Emperor Maximilian was rumoured to be preparing for another Italian campaign, Florence considered

34:32

reaching out to him. By December 1507, Machiavelli was sent to help the Florentine ambassador Francesco Vettori

34:40

negotiate with the emperor, but it was not until January that he caught up with the imperial

34:46

court at Bolzano in the Tyrol. Vettori’s inexperience and the difficulties in communicating with Florence caused the

34:54

negotiations to flounder. The emperor demanded a sum of money that Florence was unwilling to pay, while Florence demanded

35:02

military support against Pisa that the emperor was unwilling to provide. Meanwhile, the emperor surprised all observers by declaring war on the Venetians, and although

35:12

the campaign started well, the imperial armies were eventually defeated. In June 1508, Maximilian signed a truce with Venice and withdrew his forces from Italy,

35:24

no longer being in a position to help or harm Florence. Machiavelli returned home in June relieved that Florence had avoided a costly mistake.

35:35

In July, Machiavelli turned his attention back to the militia. When Soderini convinced the Florentine councils to besiege Pisa again, he mobilised the militia

35:45

and ordered it to raid the Pisan countryside and destroy the harvest.

35:50

Since the militia was without a commander for the time being, Machiavelli led this force to carry out the mission, and by November Pisa was running short of supplies.

36:01

In December, the anti-Venetian League of Cambrai had been formed by Maximilian, Louis XII,

36:08

Ferdinand of Aragon, and Pope Julius. Florence soon signed an agreement with France and Aragon, promising to pay them 50,000 florins

36:17

each for support against Pisa. Over the course of several weeks in early 1509, Machiavelli moved between the Florentine

36:25

army camps to ensure that the besieging army was well supplied, and on the 20th of May

36:32

the Pisans offered to surrender. On the 8th of June 1509, Machiavelli was marching at the head of the militia as the Florentine

36:40

authorities took control of Pisa after a fifteen-year war.

36:46

The victory in Pisa strengthened Soderini’s position in Florence, but the gonfaloniere’s

36:52

position was being slowly undermined by a campaign to return the Medici to power.

36:58

With the death of Piero in 1503, Cardinal Giovanni de’ Medici was now head of the

37:03

family. Meanwhile, the League of Cambrai had won several victories against Venice in the spring of

37:10

1509, but by the summer the Venetians were fighting back. While Louis and Maximilian were arguing about how to divide the spoils in northern Italy,

37:20

the pope considered withdrawing from the alliance. He had achieved his objectives in the Romagna and began to fear a strong French presence

37:29

in northern Italy as much as the Venetians. In February 1510, the pope signed a treaty with Venice, and the prospect of Julius leaving

37:38

the alliance would have dire consequences for Florence, especially as he had been won

37:43

over to the Medici cause. In June, Machiavelli was sent to France with instructions to persuade Louis to maintain

37:51

his alliance with Maximilian, and to avoid an open break with the pope.

37:56

Louis instead insisted that Florence provide military support against the pope, but Machiavelli

38:02

managed to convince him that it was in France’s interests for Florence to remain neutral to

38:08

avoid provoking the pope. Despite these reassurances, when Machiavelli returned to Florence in September he was given

38:16

the task of recruiting 500 cavalrymen for the militia should the city be dragged into

38:22

a war against the pope, but during the winter the war turned in France’s favour and allowed

38:28

Florence a moment of calm. However, in the summer of 1511 Louis announced his intention to hold a General Council of

38:37

the Church to depose the pope and sought to hold it in Pisa, and despite Machiavelli’s

38:43

efforts to dissuade Louis, the king was adamant that it would go ahead.

38:49

On the 5th of October, Julius joined Aragon and Venice in the Holy League directed at

38:56

France, placing Florence in grave danger. In November the General Council met for a few sessions in Pisa but left for Milan shortly

39:05

thereafter due to local discontent. Florence stuck by its French ally, which defeated a papal army at Ravenna on the 11th of April

39:15

1512, during which Giovanni de’ Medici, the papal legate to the army, had been captured

39:21

by the French army. The Florentines were delighted and it appeared that a Medici restoration was out of the question,

39:29

but over the next three months the armies of the Holy League launched attacks on several

39:34

fronts which the overstretched French armies could not resist. By July, the French forces were expelled from Italy, leaving Florence at the mercy of the

39:45

Holy League. Despite Soderini and Machiavelli’s efforts to mobilise the militia to defend the city,

39:52

the papal army’s devastating campaign prompted the gonfaloniere to resign at the end of August.

40:00

Although Giuliano de’ Medici re-entered Florence on the 1st of September and the Holy

40:05

League had forced the Signoria to accept the Medici restoration, Giuliano’s position

40:11

was not secure and he attempted to achieve consensus by working with moderates and Soderini’s

40:18

supporters. Desperate to retain his political offices, Machiavelli now showered the Medici with praise

40:25

in his writings. However, when the radical pro-Medici faction took control of the Signoria, Machiavelli

40:32

was dismissed from his offices on the 7th of November. Worse was to follow in February 1513, when Machiavelli was arrested following the discovery

40:42

of a conspiracy against the Medici. Following an investigation, Machiavelli was to be released upon payment of 1,000 florins,

40:51

but before he could raise the money, Pope Julius died on the 21st of February and Cardinal

40:57

Giovanni de’ Medici was elected in his place, taking the name Leo X.

41:03

The Medici were now unassailable in Florence, and Giuliano declared a general amnesty, allowing

41:10

Machiavelli to go free on the 11th of March.

41:15

After emerging from his prison cell, Machiavelli aspired to return to Florentine public service

41:20

and appealed to Giuliano as well as Pope Leo via his friends in Rome.

41:26

These efforts proved fruitless, and he decided to move his family to one of his properties

41:31

in the countryside south of Florence. Although these surroundings gave him the opportunity to relax, Machiavelli continued to serve as

41:40

a source of advice for his old friend Francesco Vettori, serving as ambassador in Rome.

41:47

The two men discussed the ever-changing diplomatic situation, which saw the Holy League begin

41:52

to disintegrate when Maximilian and the late Julius II turned against Venice.

41:58

Meanwhile, Ferdinand of Aragon signed a truce with Louis XII, giving the French king the

42:04

opportunity to retake Milan. In early May, a French army swept into Italy and conquered much of the duchy of Milan,

42:12

but was soundly defeated by an army of 8,000 Swiss mercenaries fighting for the Holy League.

42:18

Although Machiavelli wrote to Vettori about how the pope should respond to these developments,

42:24

perhaps in an attempt to win the favour of the Medici and return to office, he remained

42:29

unemployed. From his countryside retreat, Machiavelli wrote a short book that would guarantee his

42:37

fame over the centuries. Known as The Prince, its author hoped that the wisdom and insights contained within its

42:44

pages would enable him to gain employment with the Medici. Careful not to mention the Medici directly, Machiavelli gave advice about how a prince

42:54

who came to power through good fortune can effectively consolidate his rule over his

42:59

realm. In this task, he was following in an established tradition of writers and intellectuals offering

43:06

guidance to princes about how to govern. Both classical and Christian writers suggested that the best way for a prince to maintain

43:14

power was to be virtuous, but Machiavelli rejected such idealistic notions and argued

43:21

instead that in the real world, princes who tried to be virtuous always suffered at the

43:27

hands of external and internal enemies. He argued instead that princes must be bold and audacious, and often cited Cesare Borgia

43:36

as an example of an effective ruler in this regard. In order to maintain their position, princes should be motivated by glory and honour rather

43:46

than virtue. Recalling his experiences serving the Florentine government during the ongoing wars, Machiavelli

43:54

argued that in order to deal with external threats, such a prince had to have his own

43:59

citizen militia rather than having to depend on unreliable allies or mercenaries.

44:05

With respect to maintaining internal order and overcoming the factional politics that had plagued Florence for decades, he argued that it was better for a prince to be feared

44:16

than to be loved, and it was this belief which contributed to his reputation as a philosopher

44:23

who justified the doing of evil. Machiavelli hoped to send a copy of The Prince to Giuliano de’ Medici, who spent much of

44:33

his time in Rome and left Florentine matters in the hands of his nephew Lorenzo, the son

44:40

of Piero. In January 1514 he sent an early unfinished draft to Vettori, who was immediately impressed,

44:48

and during the following months Machiavelli worked on refining the work, leaving stronger

44:53

hints that a wise prince should employ experienced and able public servants like himself.

45:00

Aside from political matters, Machiavelli and Vettori found the time to exchange stories

45:05

about their love affairs. Although by now Machiavelli had three children and his wife was expecting a fourth, he continued

45:13

to indulge his passions not only with women but also young boys, one of the darker practices

45:20

from classical antiquity adopted by the men of the Renaissance. In June 1514 These activities allowed Machiavelli some consolation after he was informed by

45:27

Vettori in June 1514 that the Medici were still not well-disposed towards him, and neither

45:33

he nor his book would be welcome in Rome. While Machiavelli was anticipating a lengthy political exile, in December Vettori wrote

45:44

to him on behalf of Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici, the pope’s cousin, asking for advice

45:50

on whether the pope should ally with France or with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire.

45:56

Machiavelli argued in favour of a French alliance, predicting that Louis would achieve victory no matter who the pope supported, but if the pope were to back the wrong horse, Louis might

46:07

try to depose him. By the end of December, Vettori wrote that the letter was well-received by the pope,

46:14

and although there was no offer of employment, the Medici recognised Machiavelli’s talents.

46:21

When Louis died on the 1st of January 1515, his cousin and successor Francis I was equally

46:28

intent on recovering Milan and launched his campaign in the beginning of July.

46:33

The pope had opened negotiations with France but as Francis was unwilling to recognise

46:39

papal sovereignty over the cities of Parma, Reggio, Modena, and Piacenza, he joined the

46:44

anti-French league. On the 13th of September, the French army was surprised by a Swiss force at Marignano

46:52

and was on the verge of defeat before their Venetian allies arrived at the last minute

46:58

and gained victory, enabling Francis to recapture Milan a few weeks later.

47:03

From his position of strength, the king signed a truce with the pope placing the Papal States

47:09

and Florence under his protection in return for Parma and Piacenza.

47:16

Back in July, Lorenzo de’ Piero de’ Medici, who had taken over command of the Florentine

47:21

militia, hadand asked Machiavelli for advice. Before Machiavelli could send over his instructions, Lorenzo had been appointed captain-general

47:30

of the papal army in the place of his uncle Giuliano, who had fallen ill.

47:35

After Francis and Leo came to their agreement, Machiavelli hoped that he could win Lorenzo’s

47:41

favour and rededicated The Prince to him in January 1516.

47:46

However, when he delivered his treatise to the Palazzo Medici, Lorenzo had just received

47:52

a pair of hunting dogs and paid little attention to Machiavelli’s book. An infuriated Machiavelli vowed never to have anything to do with the Medici, and instead

48:03

looked forward to their demise. Recognising that his political career was over, Machiavelli joined a group of Florentine

48:10

intellectuals and writers who met in a secluded garden called the Orti Oricellari.

48:17

Machiavelli began a long poem called The Ass, in which the narrator describes the experience

48:23

of being on the island of the enchantress Circe from Homer’s Odyssey, where he encounters

48:29

the different animals into which Circe had transformed men who arrived on her island.

48:35

Making several digressions concerning Florentine politics, Machiavelli’s animals are references

48:40

to Florence’s political elite, and the narrator’s transformation into an ass represented the

48:47

author’s withdrawal from his former political life. Despite such intentions, regardless of genre, Machiavelli’s literary output could always

48:57

be read as a critique of Florentine politics. During this period he wrote the play Mandragola, a five-act comedy which sees a young Florentine

49:07

man named Callimaco win his way into the bed of Lucrezia, a beautiful childless married

49:14

woman. Pretending to be a doctor, Callimaco offers to help the couple conceive a child with a

49:20

potion made from a mandrake root, but warns them that the first person Lucrezia sleeps

49:26

with would die. Despite her initial reluctance, Lucrezia agrees to sleep with another man.

49:33

Callimaco ditches his doctor’s disguise and allows himself to be kidnapped to perform the task, but even after he reveals his identity, Lucrezia proposes they become lovers, while

49:44

her delighted husband is so grateful for Callimaco’s supposed sacrifice he gives him the keys to

49:51

his house. The Mandragola not only satirised Florentine morality, but may also be read as an allegory

49:58

of Florence being in a sterile union with the Medici, and that any attempt to restore

50:03

her liberty was justified, even by deceit. Machiavelli enjoyed the discussions with his companions at the Orti Oricellari, and soon

50:15

came to the idea that the Florentine society was so corrupt because it failed to learn the lessons of antiquity.

50:21

He started work on the Discourses on Titus Livius, framed as a commentary on the historian

50:28

Livy’s history of Rome, but also an attempt to establish a set of principles for the exercise

50:33

of political power. While Machiavelli continued to view politics through a realist rather than idealistic lens,

50:41

he was no longer trying to curry favour with the Medici. In the Discourses, Machiavelli concludes that cities and states have only achieved greatness

50:51

when they have been at liberty, and as soon as they fell under tyranny their fortunes

50:56

began to decline. For Machiavelli, liberty not only meant freedom fromof oppression, but also the ability of

51:03

citizens to enjoy equal political rights, and for them to be willing to place the common

51:09

good above individual interests. Echoing his earlier ideas in The Prince, Machiavelli’s conception of this civic duty set aside any

51:19

moral considerations. In order to guarantee liberty, Machiavelli argued that states had to eliminate class

51:26

divisions, enforce the law, establish a state religion, and be led by men of virtue.

51:33

At the end of the book, Machiavelli lamented that Florence lacked the virtuous leader it

51:38

sorely needed to eliminate corruption and overcome factionalism but hoped that one would

51:45

emerge soon. Soon after completing the Discourses, Machiavelli was presented with an unexpected opportunity

51:52

for a return to public office with the death of Lorenzo de’ Medici at the age of 26 in

51:58

May 1519. The pope sent his cousin Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici to take temporary charge of Florence,

52:06

and the cardinal attempted to bridge the factional divide by reforming the city’s constitution

52:12

and widening political participation. Machiavelli saw an opportunity to return to favour and serve the new moderate government,

52:20

and once again turned to writing in an attempt to secure employment. Following the death of Emperor Maximilian in January 1519, his grandson Charles had

52:30

been elected to succeed him. Charles was already the King of Spain following the death of his maternal grandfather King

52:38

Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, from whom he also inherited the kingdoms of Naples and

52:45

Sicily in southern Italy. As Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, he could threaten Florence and the Papal States from

52:52

both north and south. In October 1519, after being unable to come to terms with King Francis, Pope Leo came

53:01

to an agreement with Charles against the French. Florence would inevitably be drawn into the conflict.

53:08

In November, Machiavelli set about writing a treatise on military matters in an attempt

53:13

to gain Giulio’s favour. In The Art of War, Machiavelli sets out his ideas on the theory and practice of war through

53:23

the mouthpiece of the mercenary captain Fabrizio Colonna. Echoing his earlier writings, Machiavelli argues that an effective military force is

53:32

the best protector of a state’s liberty, and that a citizen militia is preferable to

53:37

mercenaries. By doing so, he was seeking to justify his record as the organiser of the Florentine

53:44

militia under Soderini’s government. In addition to organisation and training, Machiavelli discussed weapons and fortifications

53:52

extensively, championing the latest developments in military technology including firearms

53:58

and the new-style star-shaped fortresses which provided better protection against artillery.

54:04

The Art of War closes with the prediction that whichever state effectively brings into

54:09

practice the theories and technologies described in the book would conquer the whole of Italy.

54:16

Dedicated to Lorenzo Strozzi, a close ally of the Medici, The Art of War facilitated

54:22

a meeting between Machiavelli and the cardinal in March 1520.

54:27

Giulio was impressed enough to send a recommendation to Pope Leo, who agreed to give Machiavelli

54:33

a second chance. In April 1520, Machiavelli was informed that he would be commissioned to write a history

54:42

of the Florentine state, though before he was awarded the contract in November, he was

54:47

asked to carry out a few minor diplomatic missions to prove his worth to the Medici.

54:54

Machiavelli conducted himself so well that in addition to his work as a historian, he

54:59

was asked by the cardinal to draw up proposals for constitutional reform.

55:04

In his report, Machiavelli examined the changes in government Florence experienced over the

55:09

past century and argued Florence was suited to a republican government.

55:15

Acknowledging that such a proposal threatened to diminish the Medici’s authority, Machiavelli

55:20

suggested abolishing the Signoria and having the pope appoint a body of 65 men who would

55:27

serve for life and take turns carrying out the functions of the Signoria.

55:32

Machiavelli also proposed establishing a council of 200 citizens appointed by the pope to satisfy

55:39

the middle classes, and reviving the Great Council to represent the popular masses.

55:45

Recognising that the Medici would be unwilling to re-establish the Great Council, Machiavelli

55:50

proposed that the pope and the cardinal should be given authority over the judicial system

55:55

and the militia. Although these proposals proved too radical, Machiavelli continued to enjoy the Medici’s

56:03

confidence. In January 1521, as Machiavelli continued to work on his history, war broke out between

56:11

Francis I and Charles V, prompting the pope to sign an alliance with Charles, who agreed

56:17

to seize Milan from the French and guarantee Medici rule in Florence in return for military

56:23

support. Although he may have hoped to play some diplomatic role during this latest round of hostilities,

56:30

Machiavelli was instead asked to resolve a dispute involving the Franciscan Order in

56:35

Florence’s favour, which he successfully did so by invoking the authority of the pope.

56:41

Meanwhile, the fate of Italy hung in the balance as the French and Papal-Imperial armies prepared

56:47

to do battle. Machiavelli used this opportunity to publish The Art of War and sent copies to the leading

56:54

men of the day. Since he no longer harboured political ambitions, his primary motivation was to encourage best

57:01

practice in the Papal-Imperial army. By the end of the year the French army began to disintegrate and on the 20th of November

57:09

the Milanese rose in rebellion, forcing the French to withdraw from Italy.

57:15

In the winter of 1521 Machiavelli resumed work on his history, but Florence was once

57:21

again rocked by instability when Pope Leo X died on the 1st of December.

57:27

The death of the pope significantly weakened the Medici’s control over Florence. With the promise of French support, Cardinal Francesco Soderini plotted to expel the Medici

57:38

and return his brother Piero to power. Even though Machiavelli had been friends and allies with the Soderini, he continued to

57:46

support the Medici and proposed a set of constitutional reforms which reflected those he had suggested

57:53

a couple of years earlier. The changing political landscape prompted Cardinal Giulio to accept Machiavelli’s

58:00

recommendations, but before they could be implemented, the Soderini plot to assassinate the cardinal was uncovered and defeated in April 1522.

58:09

The Medici hold on power was as secure as ever, especially when Piero Soderini died

58:15

a few weeks after the failed coup. Machiavelli mourned the death of his old friend, as well as the exile of many of his young

58:23

friends from the Orti Oricellari who had supported the anti-Medici plot.

58:29

Machiavelli’s spirits were further dampened by the death of his younger brother Totto in June.

58:36

On the 14th of September 1523, Leo X’s successor Adrian VI died, and Cardinal Giulio de’

58:44

Medici was elected Pope Clement VII. Although the new pope had supported Charles V in his wars against Francis, neither the

58:53

papacy nor Florence could bear the costs of continued fighting. Despite the absence of papal support, the imperial armies pushed the French over the

59:02

Alps. In 1524, Clement turned his attention to Florentine affairs and sent his illegitimate cousins

59:09

Ippolito and Alessandro Medici to rule over the city. While peace was restored to Florence, Machiavelli began an affair with the actress and singer

59:20

Barbera Salutati, to whom he dedicated several love poems.

59:25

Recognising that he was mistreating his wife, Machiavelli wrote the comedic play Clizia,

59:31

mocking a married man who embarrasses himself during an attempt to chase after a young girl.

59:36

The play was an instant success following its premiere on the 13th of January 1525.

59:44

In March 1525, Machiavelli completed his history of Florence, covering more than a thousand

59:50

years of the city’s history from the decline of the western Roman Empire to the death of

59:56

Lorenzo the Magnificent. Throughout the book, Machiavelli was keen to emphasise the city’s impact on Italian

1:00:03

and European affairs. As with his political writings, Machiavelli’s history was not only a retelling of Florence’s

1:00:11

past but also served as a guide for how the Medici could learn from the city’s history

1:00:16

to keep the city united. He documented the endless cycle of factional conflict which caused the government to be

1:00:23

overthrown on a regular basis, criticising the tendency for each faction to exclude their

1:00:29

opponents once they had taken power. By commenting on the Medici’s tendency towards tyrannical government, Machiavelli was advising

1:00:37

them to open up the government to everyone, and endeavour to balance the interests of

1:00:43

all the political classes. By doing so, not only would they protect the city from internal and external enemies, but

1:00:50

they would also enable Florence to recover its liberty and glory.

1:00:56

While Machiavelli was finishing his history, the imperial army won a decisive victory at

1:01:01

Pavia on the 24th of February, during which Francis had been taken prisoner.

1:01:07

The battle was disastrous for the pope, who had been forced to side with France in late

1:01:12

1524. During Clement’s negotiations with Charles, the emperor demanded that Florence, Siena,

1:01:19

and Lucca should be subject to imperial rule. These terms were unacceptable and the pope knew that the alternative was war, even though

1:01:28

he had no army. When Machiavelli presented his history to the pope in May, he also delivered a proposal

1:01:35

for the establishment of a citizen militia in the Romagna to defend against the imperial

1:01:41

army. Although Clement supported the idea, when Machiavelli arrived in the Romagna he was

1:01:46

informed that the scheme was unworkable. In January 1526, France and Spain signed a treaty and Francis renounced his claims on

1:01:55

Milan and Naples, but when Francis was released from prison, he renounced the treaty and prepared

1:02:01

for war. The pope was afraid that Charles would march on Rome, and Florence stood in its way.

1:02:08

Machiavelli examined the city’s defences and reported that the walls would have to be strengthened in order to withstand modern artillery.

1:02:16

In April Machiavelli was summoned to Rome, where he was asked to take charge of the city’s

1:02:23

fortifications. On the 22nd of May, the anti-imperial League of Cognac was formed, bringing together the

1:02:30

Papacy, France, Venice, and Florence. By the end of June, the League’s armies under Francesco della Rovere were on the outskirts

1:02:38

of Milan. In May and June, Machiavelli busied himself overseeing the repairs to Florence’s walls,

1:02:45

but by early July he was sent to join the League’s army. While della Rovere hesitated to launch an assault on Milan, in September Machiavelli

1:02:55

received news from Rome that the powerful Colonna family had built up an army to oppose

1:03:00

the pope, and Clement was forced to escape to the Castel Sant’ Angelo.

1:03:06

Thereafter, the situation only got worse, when an imperial army of 16,000 German landsknechts

1:03:13

swept through northern Italy in November and seemed destined to move on to Tuscany.

1:03:18

In February 1527 Machiavelli was sent to the League’s headquarters to determine whether

1:03:24

its armies would defend Florence. Upon his arrival, he learned that della Rovere was unwilling to carry out his orders due

1:03:32

to a dispute with the pope. Although Clement managed to sign a truce with the imperial army, the underpaid landsknechts

1:03:39

refused to stand by the truce and went on the offensive, defying their commanders.

1:03:45

Belatedly recognising the danger, Clement hurriedly renewed his alliance with the French

1:03:50

and Venetians and gave in to della Rovere’s demands. In April, the imperial troops reached Arezzo and were poised to attack Florence but decided

1:04:00

to march on Rome rather than risk battle with della Rovere. On the 6th of May, the imperial army sacked Rome, and less than two weeks later on the

1:04:10

16th of May, the Medici were expelled from Florence and the republic restored.

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When Machiavelli returned to Florence, he welcomed the restoration of the republic and hoped that he would return to office, but his ill-health and his association with the

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Medici meant that he was overlooked. The disappointment caused his health to decline further, and on the 21st of June, he died

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at the age of 58 and was later buried at the Church of Santa Croce in Florence, sharing

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his resting place with the scientist Galileo and the artist Michelangelo.

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Niccolò Machiavelli dedicated his life to serving his native Florence during a period

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of political instability and constant warfare in the Italian peninsula.

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Although he preferred a republican government at heart and spent much of his career serving

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the Florentine republic, he was willing to set aside any factional sympathies in order

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to promote the city’s stability and prosperity. His experience as a diplomat responding to constantly shifting alliances gave him a particular

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insight into the realities of political and diplomatic affairs, and these insights have

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remained influential over the centuries through his political writings. His advice for political actors to dismiss moral and ethical considerations when exercising

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power horrified Christian moralists and liberal philosophers alike and gave him a bad reputation.

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The Prince is often seen as a handbook for tyrants and dictators, while the term Machiavellianism

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has entered the English language to refer to manipulative behaviour. Although he is best known as a political writer, Machiavelli also wrote poetry and fiction

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during his distinguished literary career, his comedic plays were particularly well-received

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during his lifetime, while his letters to friends are full of humour and wit.

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What do you think of Niccolò Machiavelli? Does he deserve his mainstream reputation as an advocate of manipulative and deceitful

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political methods? Or was he a man of republican principles whose political remedies were intended to create

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strong and stable states which guaranteed prosperity and liberty for their inhabitants?

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Please let us know in the comment section and in the meantime, thank you very much for

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watching.